Letterform Usage

This page provides descriptions of the letterform and where it was used. Click on the letterform's name in the first column to visit a page which shows the letters used in inscriptions on actual coins of the Historia Numorum project. Names in all capital letters are the official Unicode names.

Adobe Glyph Name	Letter	Usage on ancient Coins
Alpha		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA. This form first appears at Agrigentum and Catana about 480-460 B.C. (Hill, 208)
Alpha.02		broken-barAlpha or bent-elbow Alpha, this form is common from the closing years of the third century till Nero's time; after that it is rare except on the coins of Bosporus. An anticipation is found at Agyrium (Sicily) in the fourth century. Becomesin the first century A.D. (Hill, 208)
Alpha.03		This form disappears as a rule early in the fifth century BC; but in Athens it was retained, in accordance with the archaizing tendency of the coinage, until about 430 B.C. (Hill, 208)
Alpha.04		The same glyph appears as the retrograde formon coins of Stiela or Styella (HN, p. 171; Icard, p. 506), and on the coins of Axus in Crete (HN, p. 359; Icard, p. 162)
Alpha.05
Alpha.06
Alpha.07
Alpha.08
Alpha.09
Alpha.10
Alpha.11
Beta		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA. Comes in perhaps as early as 100 B.C. and is common in Asia Minor under the Empire. (Hill, 209)
Beta.02		is common until late in the fifth century, but is confined to the Greek mainland. In some Sicilian cities it occurs occasionally at the end of the third century. (Hill, 209)
Beta.03
Beta.04
Beta.05
Beta.06
Beta.07		lunate Beta is found on coins of Thraco-Macedonian Bisaltae dating about 500-480 B.C. This lunate form is probably due to the influence of the Thasian alphabet. (Hill, 209)
Beta.08
Beta.09
Beta.10		found on coins of Thraco-Macedonian Bisaltae dating about 500-480 B.C. (Hill, 209)
Beta.11		is peculiar to Byzantium, whence it disappears between 277 and 270 B.C. (Hill, 209)
Gamma		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER GAMMA. As a rule, this form had superseded all the older forms by the close of the fifth century.(Hill, 209)
Gamma.02		transitional form used at Gela and Segesta, in the middle of the fifth century. (Hill, 209)
Gamma.03
Gamma.04		inverted Gamma form used at Selge in Psidia (HN, 711)
Gamma.05		this early from was used at Segesta. (Hill, 209)
Gamma.06
Gamma.07		lunate Gamma is found until about 440 in Sicily, but lasts as late as the forth century at Agae in Achaea. (Hill, 209)
Gamma.08		a common form lasting sometimes (as at Gomphi in Thessaly and Gortyna in Crete) down to the end of the fourth century.(Hill, 209)
Delta		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA
Delta.02		this early form is found at Zancle down to 490, and later at Selinus.(Hill, 209)
Delta.03		an early form found at Zancle (Messana¹), in Arcadia and elsewhere.(Hill, 209)
Delta.04
Epsilon		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON
Epsilon.02		GREEK LUNATE EPSILON SYMBOL. Found occasionally before the close of the third century in Sicily, and before 100 B.C. at Apollonia and Dyrrhachium in Illyria. Under the Empire, from about the middle of the first century A.D., it becomes the commonest form. (Hill, 210). An example in HN, p. 672.
Epsilon.02.retro		GREEK REVERSED LUNATE EPSILON SYMBOL
Epsilon.03
Epsilon.04
Epsilon.05		Anticipating our modern cursive e, this form was used on coins of Rhoemetalces king of Bosporus, A.D. 132-154. (Hill, 210 and pl. XIII, 3)
Epsilon.06
Epsilon.07
Epsilon.08		Early form seldom seen later than about 480 B.C. (Hill, 209)
Epsilon.09
Epsilon.10
Epsilon.11
Epsilon.12
Epsilon.13		this dotted form occurs in the first century A.D. (Hill, 210)
Epsilon.14		c. 550-490 BC in Arcadin : Heraea (HN, p. 447); c. 511(?)-490 BC in Euboea : Erertia (HN, p. 361); c. 450 BC in Illyricum : Epodamnus-Dyrrhachium (HN, p. 406); Icard, p. 126
Epsilon.15		HN, p. 672
Epsilon.16		Used in Cilicia at Olbia as part of abbreviation to indicate a date (HN, p. 727)
Stigma		GREEK LETTER STIGMA. Only used as a numeral (= 6) and appears in a great variety of shapes. (Hill, 215)
Stigma.02
Stigma.03		See Vardanes II usage in Parthia. Also a bronze coin from Apamea dated = 326 S.E. = A.D. 14/15 (G. Macdonald, Catalogue of Greek Coins in the Hunterian Collection, University of Glasgow, 1905, p. 194, no. 30 and plate LXXIII, 24)
Stigma.04		form used in imperial times (Hill, 215)
Digamma		GREEK LETTER DIGAMMA. This form is kept up as an archaism at Elis, and not discarded until imperial times. At Axus in Crete it lasts to the end of the fourth century. (Hill, 215)
Digamma.02
Digamma.03		This form is found in Crete, as late as the third century B.C. (Hill, 215)
Digamma.04
Digamma.05		The retrograde formis used on coins of Axus in Crete (HN, p. 459; Icard, p. 162)
Digamma.06		a rare form found in the fourth century B.C. at the Cretan Axus (compare the Pamphylian form at Perga in the second or first century B.C.) (Hill, 215)
Digamma.07
Digamma.08		This form used in Pamphylia at Perga (HN, p. 702; Icard, p. 400) and Sillyum (HN, p. 705; Icard, p. 452; Lanckoronski-Niemann-Petersen, Les Villes de la Pamphylie, i., pp. 70 ff.)
Digamma.09		Icard, p. 162
Zeta		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ZETA. This form comes in with the first century B.C., but is not common until Roman times. This form could possibly be earlier; see the coins of Zacynthus, BMC Peloponnesus, p. 101. (Hill, 210)
Zeta.02		is the usual early form, the middle stroke being seldom if ever slanting. (Hill, 210)
Zeta.03
Eta		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA. This form occurs early in the Ionian district (as at Teos, B.C. 544-400), and also elsewhere, as on coins of Getas king of the Edonians (about 500 B.C.). At Athens, is retained on coins long after the Ionic H had been officially adopted, even on coins of the 'new style,' on which words are spelled in the ordinary way. Only on coins of imperial times is the archaism discarded. Elsewhere, the period of transition from E to H, toward the close of the fifth century, is an uneasy one. The same artist at Syracuse signs and at times not far removed from each other. Gardner dates the adoption of H in the West about 425 B.C. (Hill, 209)
Eta.02		Spiritus asper. the closed form is only found in the earliest times (as on the electrum coins). Occurs as Spiritus asper on coins of Himera in the fifth century where the closed form is followed by the opn H, which disappears in Southern Italy and Sicily about 400 B.C. or a little earlier, being partly replaced by Eta.07, which is occasionally found even as late as the third century. (Hill, 210 and pl. I, 4)
Eta.03		Spiritus asper. (Hill, 210) Three-rung ladder Eta
Eta.04		Spiritus asper. The most peculiar form, found on the earliest coins of Hiliartus in Boetia (before 550 B.C.), which is followed by Eta.03, Eta.xx and El
Eta.05		(reserved) Two-rung ladder Eta
Eta.06		Spiritus asper. (Hill, 210)
Eta.07		Spiritus asper. Partly replacesand is occasionally found even as late as the third century. (Hill, 210 and pl. I, 4)
Eta.08		At Athens,form of Eta in the legend is retained on coins long after the Ionic H had been officially adopted, even on coins of the 'new style,' on which words are spelled in the ordinary way. Only on coins of imperial times is the archaism discarded. Elsewhere, the period of transition from E to H, toward the close of the fifth century, is an uneasy one. The same artist at Syracuse signs and at times not far removed from each other. (Hill, 209)
Theta		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA
Theta.02		round Theta dot. Curiously enough the earliest coins of Athens, dating from early in the sixth century, have, the appearing later in the century, only to disappear again very shortly. (Hill, 210)
Theta.03		GREEK CAPITAL THETA SYMBOL
Theta.04		square Theta cross
Theta.05		square Theta X
Theta.06		square Theta dot
Theta.07		round Theta cross. This and similar forms may be said to disappear about the middle of the fifth century, with a few possible exceptions (theat Baletium in the fourth century). Curiously enough the earliest coins of Athens, dating from early in the sixth century, have, the appearing later in the century, only to disappear again very shortly. (Hill, 210)
Theta.08		round Theta X disappears at Baletium in the fourth century.(Hill, 210)
Theta.09		diamond Theta bar
Theta.10		diamond Theta cross
Theta.11		diamond Theta X
Theta.12		diamond Theta dot
Theta.13		seven-dot Theta
Theta.14		this very late form of Theta appears on a coin of Severus Alexander in Aegeae in Cilicia. (Hill, 211)
Theta.15
Iota		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA
Iota.02		lightening bolt Iota is common on the earliest coins of Southern Italy and elsewhere, as at Gortyna. Its use as a late as the middle and end of the fifth century at Pandosia and Poseidonia is probably an archaism. (Hill, 211)
Iota.03
Iota.04
Iota.05
Iota.06		Iota takes this form at the Cretan cities of Gortyna, Lyttus and Phaestus in the fifth century. (Hill, 211)
Iota.07		Iota (added for TLG compatibility)
Kappa		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA
Kappa.02
Kappa.03
Kappa.04
Kappa.05
Kappa.06
Kappa.07
Kappa.08
Kappa.09		HN, p. 448 and Icard, p. 231
Lambda		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER LAMDA. This form is common at all periods, preceding an inverted Lambda02 for instance, at Leontini. (Hill, 211)
Lambda.02
Lambda.03
Lambda.04
Lambda.05		a variety of Lambda found on the Bisaltian coins and occasionally at Leontini. (Hill, 211)
Lambda.06		very early form which occurs on coins of the Bisaltae about 500 B.C., and elsewhere later, as at Philus and Lyttus down to the middle of the fifth century. (Hill, 211)
Lambda.07		very early form which is rarely found after 420 B.C. in places where Greek influence was strong; but in Campania it lasts down to the early fourth century, when it is found beside(Hill, 211)
Lambda.08		seen at Leontini, where it was preceded by(Hill, 211)
Mu		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU
Mu.02		This splayed form is common in early times, but is also found down to the latest period of Greek coinage. It is preceded by forms likeandbut these are exceptional. (Hill, 211)
Mu.03
Mu.04
Mu.05
Mu.06		Appears in the course of the third century. In imperial times, after the period of the Antonines, we often find a form approaching the cursive. (Hill, 211)
Mu.07
Nu		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER NU
Nu.02		goes out of use soon after 400 B.C. (Hill, 211)
Nu.03		goes out of use soon after 400 B.C. (Hill, 211)
Nu.04		goes out of use soon after 400 B.C. (Hill, 211)
Nu.05
Nu.06
Nu.07		oblique Nu. goes out of use soon after 400 B.C. (Hill, 211)
Nu.08		an exceptional form that occurs at Agrigentum about 410 B.C. (Hill, 211)
Xi		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER XI. This sound was represented in early days at Axus in Crete by or on the early fourth-century coins formerly attributed to 'Naxos' (Hill, 212)
Xi.02		a simpler form found in Italy and Sicily as early as the fifth century. Later becomes even more simple as(Hill, 212)
Xi.03		(Icard, 349)
Xi.04		an early form of(Hill, 212) McLean says this form was gradually replaced by,and other forms from 1st century B.C. to 1st century A.D.
Xi.05		the middle bar of Xitends to become shorter over time until it is often reduced to just a dot. (Hill, 212)
Xi.06		(Icard, 349)
Xi.07		(Icard, 349)
Xi.08		used in the Achaean colonies in the West (Pyxus and Naxos). Even at Naxos it disappears before the end of the fifth century. (Hill, 212)
Xi.09		A simple form found in Italy and Sicily as early as the fifth century. It becomes common under the Empire, when also we find ornamental forms such as(Hill, 212)
Omicron		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON
Omicron.02		is a late form (second and third centuries A.D. as on a coin of Seleucia in Syria of A.D. 157)². Compare the formfor Theta.(Hill, 212)
Omicron.03		Omicron dot. The rule as to the smallness ofexcept in very late or careless inscriptions, is fairly well observed. Sometimes it is made so small as to become a dot. An instance of this peculiarity is afforded by the coins of Audoleon king of Paeonia, 315-286 B.C. (Hill, 212)
Omicron.04		small Omicron. After the early years of the fifth century Omicron is regularly written somewhat smaller than other letters of a word, and occupies either the middle or the upper half of the writing space. The use offor XX and XX is not properly subsequent to the close of the fifth century or the beginning of the fourth. Apparent exceptions are sometimes due to the want of space for the final XX in genitives, sometimes to dialectic peculiarities, as in the Doric xxxxxxxx on coins of Syracuse. (Hill, 212)
Omicron.05		occurs in Southern Italy and in Crete on coins which are probably in no case later than 450 B.C. Theis as unusual in imperial times as in the first period, but may be found, e.g., in somewhat affected lettering of the obverse of a coin of Apamea (pl.XIV, 10. (Hill, 212)
Omicron.06		Omicron Omega
Omicron.07		this form, which is not uncommon in early times, is due to the fact that in lapidary inscriptions the letter was made with a pair of compasses. (Hill, 212)
Omicron.08
Pi		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI. Instances of this form probably do not occur, except accidentally, before about 250 B.C. (Hill, 213)
Pi.02		the usual form throughout the early period. Instances of this form probably do not occur, except accidentally, after about 200 B.C. (Hill, 213) McLean holds that Pi evolved from this short right hasta form tofrom 1st century B.C. to 1st century A.D.
Pi.03		appears occasionally in the second century B.C., and under the Empire it becomes almost universal. (Hill, 213)
Pi.04
Pi.05		Pi topless
Pi.06		is confined to Crete
San		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SAN. As a recumbent form of Sigma, it lingers on in exceptional cases, as at Poseidonia and Gortyna, to the end of the fifth century then superceded by(Hill, 213)
San.02		As a recumbent form of Sigma, it lingers on in exceptional cases, as at Poseidonia and Gortyna, to the end of the fifth century then superceded by(Hill, 213)
Koppa		GREEK LETTER ARCHAIC KOPPA, lollipop Koppa. As the initial of the name of Corinth is retained even to the days of the Achaen League. In some places (as in Arcadia and at Syracuse) it disappears early in the fifth century ; at Croton it lasts till about 420 B.C. As a numeral (=90) it continues to be used till the latest times. (Hill, 215)
Koppa.02		dotted Koppa
Koppa.03		crutch Koppa
Koppa.04
Koppa.05		takes this form on a few staters of the early fifth century (Hill, 215)
[Koppa, not used]		GREEK LETTER KOPPA, lightning-bolt Koppa (modern Greek numeric). This form not known on coins as a Koppa.
Rho		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO
Rho.02		pointed Rho. Gardner notes this character as late as the middle of the third century at Syracuse. (Hill, 213)
Rho.03
Rho.04		Rho topbar
Rho.05
Rho.06		short-tailed Rho
Rho.07		angular tailed Rho. It may safely be said that this form does not occur after 400 B.C., but disappearance may be some twenty or thirty years earlier. (Hill, 213)
Rho.08
Rho.09		Latin Rho
Rho.10		footed Rho. The retrograde version appears on coins of Arcadia: Heraea (HN, p. 447)
Sigma		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA. (Four-bar sigma.) As early as the fourth century, this form occurs, for instance, at Sicyon (BMC Peloponnesus, pl. 8, 21). It prevails until the early years of the first century A.D. By the end of the century it may be said to be generally displaced byandalthough it still occurs frequently. (Hill, 213)
Sigma.02		GREEK CAPITAL LUNATE SIGMA SYMBOL (provisionally accepted)]. Early instances are rare; occurs on the coins of Cos which is probably earlier than 300 B.C. (BMC Caria, p. 195, 16) and on others of the same place which are certainly earlier than 190 B.C. ; on one of Seleucus II of Syria, 246-226 B.C. (Imhoof-Blumer, Monn. Gr., p. 427). ; at Salapia, at Agrigentum, and other Sicilian towns before the end of the third century. (Hill, 213-214)
Sigma.03		The less common of the two "C" forms. Early instances are rare; this for is later appearing than; it has been noted on a coin of Antiochus IV, 175-164 B.C. (Imhoof-Blumer, Monn. Gr., p. 430). It is fairly common during the early Empire, and again from the middle of the third century onwards. (Hill, 213-214)
Sigma.04
Sigma.05		Three-bar sigma. This early standing form is usual until soon after the beginning of the fifth century. (The Sigma in about 300 B.C. is Italic, not Greek.) At Syracuse it had probably disappeared by 500 B.C. Superceded by(Hill, 213). McLean mentions that the three-bar sigma is replaced by the four-bar sigmasomewhat erratically but was near complete by 446 B.C. and the transition finished by 415 B.C. in all inscriptions.
Sigma.06		This form is found until about 476 B.C., e.g., at Messana. superceded by(Hill, 213)
Sigma.07
Sigma.08		Five-bar sigma
Sigma.09		In use down to the first century B.C., and may occur even later owing to careless writing. (Hill, 213)
Sigma.10		three-bar right angle sigma (for TLG compatibility)
Sho		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SHO - Bactrian letter. See n2411 proposal for details.
Tau		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU
Tau.02
Tau.03
Tau.04
Upsilon		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER UPSILON. Probablyis earlier thanbut the two appear to go side by side throughout the whole history of Greek coinage. The approximation of one to the other in careless writing, especially when the lines are slightly curved, is naturally very close. (Hill, 214)
Upsilon.02
Upsilon.03
Upsilon.04		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER UPSILON HOOK
Upsilon.05
Upsilon.06
Phi		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI. The tendency in later times is to lengthen the hasta of the letter, and make the circle small. (Hill, 214)
Phi.02
Phi.03
Phi.04
Phi.05
Phi.06
Phi.07
Phi.08		this form is not uncommon before the middle of the fifth century. (Hill, 214)
Phi.09		A rare form which is only known from two coins, one of Phocaes, dating to about 600 B.C. (Hill, pl. I, 2), the other of Phaselis, earlier than 466 B.C. (Hill, 214)
Phi.10		doubledot Phi is a late form of which an early instance is found at Phoenice in Epirus about 200 B.C., but is commoner in imperial times. (Hill, 214)
Chi		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI
Chi.02
Chi.03		early form gives way toduring the fifth century (Hill, 214)
Chi.04		early form gives way toduring the fifth century (Hill, 214)
Psi		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PSI
Psi.02		later than, this form is used regularly after the fifth century (Hill, 214)
Psi.03		See, for instance, the name of the river god Hypsas at Selinus in Sicily. This form is earlier than(Hill, 214)
Psi.04		HN, p. 453
Psi.05		HN, p. 453
Psi.06		HN, p. 453
Omega		GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMEGA. Comes in about 410 B.C. in Sicily ; in Greece a few years later. About the middle of the third century it begins for a time to be written smaller than the other letters, and the horizontal lines are made longer in proportion. The horizontal lines begin to degenerate into mere serifs in early imperial times, although a well-formedis still often found. (Hill, 214-215)
Omega.02		cursive Omega. This form occurs on a coin of Antiochus II (261-246 B. C.) and this is an exceptionally early instance. It is very common in imperial times. (Hill, 214)
Omega.03
Omega.04		Used in alphabets not belonging to the Ionic group. (Hill, 214)
Omega.05
Omega.06		a late form, hardly occurring before the time of Septimius Severus (Hill, 215)
Omega.07
Omega.08
Omega.09		this form is never very common, but is found as early as the first century B.C. (Hill, 215)
Omega.10		Used in alphabets not belonging to the Ionic group. (Hill, 214)
Omega.11
Omega.12		About the middle of the third century, Omega begins for a time to be written smaller than the other letters, and the horizontal lines are made longer in proportion. (Hill, 214)
Sampi		GREEK LETTER SAMPI
Sampi.02		Hill calls this form "San" which appears on coins of Mesembria. (Hill, 215). It was named "Disigma" by other late 19th century, early 20th century numismatists. See page on this topic.
Sampi.03		This form also appears on the coins of Mesembria as a variant of
Sampi.04		Hill gives this Pamphylian form, which appears on the coins of Perga, as a double sigma and analogous to thewhich appears on coins of Mesembria. (Hill, 215). It was named "Disigma" by other late 19th century, early 20th century numismatists. See page discussing this topic.

____________________
Notes:
1. Hill (209) cites Evans, Num. Chr. 1896, p. 116, for its late occurrence.
2. Wroth, BMC Galatia, etc., p. 272 no. 31, Pl. 32, 10.